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← All SystemsSystem 02 / materialsReviewed Aug 29, 2026

Materials & Chemistry

Ordinary minerals become extraordinary inputs through purification, specialty chemistry, and tightly controlled logistics.

Understand the system

How it works

AI hardware starts with a hidden chemical economy in which purity, qualification, and geographic concentration matter more than raw tonnage alone.

Material dependencies

The material inputs to fabrication

Select a capability to explore its role and connections.

Selected: Critical minerals

Critical minerals

Gallium and other geographically concentrated mineral inputs entering electronics.

Explore Critical minerals in Atlas

Documented connections

Selected documented dependencies. Arrows retain their Atlas direction; they do not represent quantities or a complete engineering process.

A finished accelerator compresses a vast materials system into a few square centimeters: silicon, copper, tungsten, cobalt, tantalum, gallium, rare gases, photoresists, slurries, ceramics, glass, and organic substrates. The essential story is not merely mining. It is the sequence of purification, formulation, qualification, safe handling, and repeatable delivery that turns commodities into semiconductor-grade inputs.

Purity is the product

Semiconductor inputs are differentiated by impurity budgets measured at extreme levels. A mine can be abundant while qualified electronic-grade conversion capacity remains scarce.

  • Track conversion and purification, not only reserves
  • Distinguish solar-grade from semiconductor-grade silicon
Supporting evidence · 2
  1. [1] Semiconductor-grade polysilicon generally requires purity of at least eleven nines, far beyond ordinary industrial silicon.
  2. [2] ASML describes the 300-millimeter wafer as the size most often used in semiconductor manufacturing.

A periodic table of dependencies

Silicon anchors the wafer, but compound semiconductors, copper interconnects, refractory metals, rare gases, and package materials each enter at different process steps and risk profiles.

  • Map material to process step and recovery path
  • Separate volume constraints from qualification constraints
Supporting evidence · 3
  1. [1] China accounted for about 98 percent of worldwide primary low-purity gallium production in 2024.
  2. [2] USGS lists U.S. net import reliance at 100 percent for arsenic, fluorspar, gallium, germanium, indium, and tantalum used in data-center semiconductors, with additional reliance including 80 percent for rare-earth elements and 73 percent for tin.
  3. [3] Semiconductor design, equipment, materials, wafer fabrication, and assembly remain distributed across highly specialized regional clusters.

Chemistry runs the fab

Photoresists, developers, etchants, deposition precursors, cleaning agents, and polishing slurries repeatedly create and remove films. Consistency across batches is as important as nominal composition.

  • Chemical steps repeat across the wafer process
  • Contamination control directly affects yield
Supporting evidence · 2
  1. [1] Leading-edge wafers pass through thousands of fabrication process steps over a period measured in weeks before packaging and test.
  2. [2] Inspection, metrology, and data analysis form a feedback loop used to detect defects and control semiconductor yield.

Concentration creates policy exposure

Supplier concentration, export rules, shipping routes, and long qualification cycles can convert a small upstream disruption into a system-wide delay. Substitution usually requires process requalification.

  • Flag single-region and single-supplier dependencies
  • Model inventory time against requalification time
Supporting evidence · 2
  1. [1] SIA reported that Wacker and Hemlock together supply roughly three quarters of global semiconductor-grade polysilicon.
  2. [2] The December 2024 U.S. package added controls on 24 categories of semiconductor manufacturing equipment, three software-tool categories, and HBM, plus 140 Entity List additions.

Featured evidence

Representative fab water-demand allocation

NIST's 2024 programmatic assessment reports this planning split from 2021 fab information. It is a government synthesis, not a universal recipe: facility design, climate, process mix, reuse, and accounting boundaries can materially change the proportions.
SharePercent of water demand
View chart values
Representative fab water-demand allocation — underlying values in Percent of water demand
CategoryShare
Process48% Percent of water demand
Cooling23% Percent of water demand
Abatement20% Percent of water demand
UPW treatment loss9% Percent of water demand

Data status: representative allocation using 2021 information; compare facilities only after normalizing reuse and boundary definitions.

Key indicators

Key measures & constraints

  1. 01

    China accounted for about 98 percent of worldwide primary low-purity gallium production in 2024.

    Class
    estimate
    Geography
    Global
    Period
    2024
    Confidence
    high
    Trace evidence
  2. 02

    USGS lists U.S. net import reliance at 100 percent for arsenic, fluorspar, gallium, germanium, indium, and tantalum used in data-center semiconductors, with additional reliance including 80 percent for rare-earth elements and 73 percent for tin.

    Class
    estimate
    Geography
    United States
    Period
    2025 infographic using 2024 commodity data
    Confidence
    high
    Trace evidence
  3. 03

    SIA reported that Wacker and Hemlock together supply roughly three quarters of global semiconductor-grade polysilicon.

    Class
    stakeholder position
    Geography
    Global
    Period
    2025
    Confidence
    medium
    Trace evidence
  4. 04

    ASML describes the 300-millimeter wafer as the size most often used in semiconductor manufacturing.

    Class
    fact
    Geography
    Global
    Period
    current manufacturing overview updated in 2023
    Confidence
    high
    Trace evidence
  5. 05

    NIST's representative synthesis for a 29-fab sample allocates semiconductor-fab water demand as 48 percent process, 23 percent cooling, 20 percent abatement, and 9 percent ultrapure-water treatment loss, with less than 1 percent nonindustrial use.

    Class
    estimate
    Geography
    United States
    Period
    2021 sample data published 2024
    Confidence
    high
    Trace evidence

System map

Connections across the system

Explore inputs, outputs, and shared capabilities in the Atlas. Open the register for every documented relationship.

Across the system boundary Selected documented relationships · arrows follow the Atlas

Enters this system 3

  1. AI rack system→ Hardware lifecycleTrace relationship
  2. Repair, reuse & recycling→ Hardware lifecycleTrace relationship

Leaves this system 5

  1. Leading-edge fab← Polysilicon & wafersTrace relationship
  2. Leading-edge fab← Specialty chemicalsTrace relationship
System 02Materials & Chemistry7 internal relationships

Shared capabilities can belong to more than one System. These links carry materials, energy, information, capital, or permissions; they describe dependencies, not quantities or a complete process model.

Explore 9 capabilities and operating boundaries
Atlas nodes / 9
All documented relationships · 15
  1. criticaloutput
    Polysilicon & wafersLeading-edge fab

    Qualified silicon wafers are the physical starting substrate for fabrication.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Semiconductor-grade polysilicon generally requires purity of at least eleven nines, far beyond ordinary industrial silicon.
    2. [2] SIA reported that Wacker and Hemlock together supply roughly three quarters of global semiconductor-grade polysilicon.
  2. criticaloutput
    Specialty chemicalsLeading-edge fab

    Qualified chemicals repeatedly add, pattern, clean, and remove wafer layers.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 1
    1. [1] Leading-edge wafers pass through thousands of fabrication process steps over a period measured in weeks before packaging and test.
  3. criticaloutput
    Deposition precursorsDeposition equipment

    Deposition tools require qualified precursors to form controlled films.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Leading-edge wafers pass through thousands of fabrication process steps over a period measured in weeks before packaging and test.
    2. [2] Semiconductor design, equipment, materials, wafer fabrication, and assembly remain distributed across highly specialized regional clusters.
  4. criticaloutput
    Package substratesAdvanced packaging

    Advanced packages require compatible high-density substrates for power, signal, and mechanical integration.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] TSMC's CoWoS platform integrates logic chiplets and high-bandwidth memory on an interposer within an advanced package.
    2. [2] SIA's high-level semiconductor value chain runs from research and development through chip design, front-end wafer fabrication, back-end assembly, test and packaging, and finally circuit-board integration into products.
  5. importantinternal
    Critical mineralsSpecialty chemicals

    Mineral inputs are refined and formulated into electronic materials.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] China accounted for about 98 percent of worldwide primary low-purity gallium production in 2024.
    2. [2] USGS lists U.S. net import reliance at 100 percent for arsenic, fluorspar, gallium, germanium, indium, and tantalum used in data-center semiconductors, with additional reliance including 80 percent for rare-earth elements and 73 percent for tin.
  6. importantinput
    AI rack systemHardware lifecycle

    Refresh and retirement send systems into reuse, parts recovery, or recycling.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] The world generated 62 million tonnes of electronic waste in 2022, while 22.3 percent was documented as formally collected and recycled.
    2. [2] UNITAR projects global electronic waste to reach 82 million tonnes in 2030 under current trends.
  7. importantinternal
    Electronic gasesSpecialty chemicals

    Electronic gases supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Semiconductor design, equipment, materials, wafer fabrication, and assembly remain distributed across highly specialized regional clusters.
    2. [2] Leading-edge wafers pass through thousands of fabrication process steps over a period measured in weeks before packaging and test.
  8. importantinternal
    Photoresists & developersSpecialty chemicals

    Photoresists & developers supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] EUV lithography uses light with a wavelength of 13.5 nanometers to pattern advanced semiconductor layers.
    2. [2] Semiconductor design, equipment, materials, wafer fabrication, and assembly remain distributed across highly specialized regional clusters.
  9. importantinternal
    Deposition precursorsSpecialty chemicals

    Deposition precursors supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Leading-edge wafers pass through thousands of fabrication process steps over a period measured in weeks before packaging and test.
    2. [2] Semiconductor design, equipment, materials, wafer fabrication, and assembly remain distributed across highly specialized regional clusters.
  10. importantinternal
    CMP & wet chemicalsSpecialty chemicals

    CMP & wet chemicals supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] NIST's representative synthesis for a 29-fab sample allocates semiconductor-fab water demand as 48 percent process, 23 percent cooling, 20 percent abatement, and 9 percent ultrapure-water treatment loss, with less than 1 percent nonindustrial use.
    2. [2] Leading-edge wafers pass through thousands of fabrication process steps over a period measured in weeks before packaging and test.
  11. importantinternal
    Package substratesSpecialty chemicals

    Package substrates supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] TSMC's CoWoS platform integrates logic chiplets and high-bandwidth memory on an interposer within an advanced package.
    2. [2] SIA's high-level semiconductor value chain runs from research and development through chip design, front-end wafer fabrication, back-end assembly, test and packaging, and finally circuit-board integration into products.
  12. importantinput
    Repair, reuse & recyclingHardware lifecycle

    Repair, reuse & recycling supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 3
    1. [1] U.S. EPA guidance places reuse and redeployment of functional electronics ahead of recycling, with refurbishment, repair, component harvesting, and secure data handling used to retain equipment value where practicable.
    2. [2] The world generated 62 million tonnes of electronic waste in 2022, while 22.3 percent was documented as formally collected and recycled.
    3. [3] UNITAR projects global electronic waste to reach 82 million tonnes in 2030 under current trends.
  13. importantoutput
    Photoresists & developersDUV lithography

    DUV patterning requires compatible resist and developer materials.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] ASML describes DUV optical systems as lens-based and EUV systems as multilayer-mirror-based, with optics supplied through its strategic ZEISS partnership since the late 1980s.
    2. [2] Semiconductor design, equipment, materials, wafer fabrication, and assembly remain distributed across highly specialized regional clusters.
  14. enablinginternal
    Hardware lifecycleCritical minerals

    Recovery can return selected metals to material supply and reduce virgin demand.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 1
    1. [1] The world generated 62 million tonnes of electronic waste in 2022, while 22.3 percent was documented as formally collected and recycled.
  15. enablinginput
    Repair, reuse & recyclingCritical minerals

    Reuse, parts harvesting, and recycling can reduce virgin demand and return selected materials to supply.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] U.S. EPA guidance places reuse and redeployment of functional electronics ahead of recycling, with refurbishment, repair, component harvesting, and secure data handling used to retain equipment value where practicable.
    2. [2] The world generated 62 million tonnes of electronic waste in 2022, while 22.3 percent was documented as formally collected and recycled.

Named companies + institutions

Organizations & their roles

  1. material · research institution

    UNITAR

    United Nations Institute for Training and Research

    United Nations institute publishing the Global E-waste Monitor with international partners.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    community party
    Products / service
    global electronics-lifecycle evidence
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    Not cataloged
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Hardware lifecycle

      Primary-source evidence connects this institution to global electronics-lifecycle evidence in the specified Atlas capability.

  2. representative · private company

    JSR

    JSR Corporation

    Japan-based materials company supplying semiconductor photoresists and other electronic materials.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    manufacturer
    Products / service
    JSR group semiconductor materials production
    Documented activity
    Japan
    Headquarters
    Japan
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Photoresists & developers

      Primary-source evidence connects this institution to jsr group semiconductor materials production in the specified Atlas capability.

  3. representative · private company

    SK Siltron

    SK Siltron Co., Ltd.

    South Korean silicon-wafer manufacturer supplying semiconductor substrates.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    manufacturer
    Products / service
    semiconductor silicon wafers
    Documented activity
    South Korea
    Headquarters
    South Korea
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Polysilicon & wafers

      Primary-source evidence connects this institution to semiconductor silicon wafers in the specified Atlas capability.

Read this System in the field guide

Continue in the Volumes

Start with three selected readings, or explore the complete reading list.

Start here
  1. 01
    Volume I · MatterQuartz to polysilicon
  2. 02
    Volume I · MatterCritical minerals
  3. 03
    Volume I · MatterWater and contamination
Complete reading list
Volume I

Matter

12 spreads
  1. I · 01The industrial origin
  2. I · 02Quartz to polysilicon
  3. I · 03Crystal to wafer
  4. I · 04Conductors and joints
  5. I · 05Gases, resists, and slurries
  6. I · 06Critical minerals
  7. I · 07Water and contamination
  8. I · 08Steel, concrete, and enclosure
  9. I · 09Power and thermal materials
  10. I · 10Qualification and useful life
  11. I · 11Concentration and chokepoints
  12. I · 12Resilience and handoff
Related cross-System reading · 10 spreads

Evidence & review

currentEvidence health20 active claims · next review Oct 13, 2026
Active claims
20
Sources
19
High volatility
3
Next review
Oct 13, 2026
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0
Overdue
0
Superseded
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